Compiled by Santiram Dahal, Instructor, Janta Multiple campus, Itahari

Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

Curriculum Theory

Shantiram Dahal

9/4/2011

            Let’s begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek word “philos” (love) and “sophia” (wisdom) which translated means “love of wisdom”. Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about the world seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers.

            For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality, goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions philosophers ask are:

• What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
• How do we know what we know?
• What is reality? What things can be describe as real?
• What is the nature of thought and thinking?
• What is special about being a human being?
• Is there anything special about being alive at all?
• What is ethics?
• What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
• What is beauty?
• How do beautiful things differ from others?

            Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing. Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone’s perspective on life (philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving something.

            Now, let’s examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education. What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as ‘What is education?’ ‘What is the purpose of education?’, ‘What does it mean to know something?’ ‘What is the relationship between education and society?’ The philosophy of education recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children themselves.

            Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education later in the chapter]. These philosophers

have been key voices in philosophy of education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems in education.

            What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when you propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be asked, “What is your philosophy for introducing that content?” If you are unable to answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.

            Philosophy helps us answer general questions such as: ‘What are schools for?’ ‘What subjects are of value?’, ‘How should students learn the content?’  It also helps us to answer more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them, what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.   

1.3.1 What is Perennialism?

Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms year after year.

Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is “to improve man as man” (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing one’s moral and spiritual being, character education should be emphasised.

           

            Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the ‘Great Books’ was proposed covering topics in literature, art, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville,  Euclid’s book Elements on geometry, Newton’s book on Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam  Smith and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again and benefit from it.         The perennialists believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.

1.3.2 The Perennialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics:

·         The ‘Great Books’ programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced mathematics and philosophy (Hutchins, 1936).

·         The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.

·         At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.

·         Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects.  They argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers.

·         The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.

·         Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.

·         At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should be on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue; and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and concepts that have stood the test to time. Student should learns to learn, and not to be evaluated

·         Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake. “University students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions “ (Hutchins, 1936)

·         Teaching reasoning using the ‘Great Books’ of Western writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students. Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach science but not technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics.

·         Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society. Students must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.

·         School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right and wrong should be emphasized so that students will have definite rules that they must follow.

2.4.1 What is Essentialism?

Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with the "essentials" or “basics” of academic knowledge and character development. The term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik which caused a panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education followed that led to interest in essentialism.

Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instill traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality. Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion.

2.4.2 The Essentialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following characteristics:

·         The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content.

·         Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, and measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most often associated with the development of creativity) students are required to master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students promoted to the next higher grade.

·         Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student ability.

·         It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role model for students.

·         Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.

·          In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge, but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge in real world settings.

·         Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society.

·         Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well and can transmit their knowledge to students.

2.5.1 What is Progressivism?

            Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952). The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement.

            According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society’s identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920).  He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920):

1.      To be aware of the problem (eg. plants need sunlight to grow)

2.      Define the problem (eg. can plants grow without sunlight)

3.      Propose hypotheses to solve it

4.      Test the hypotheses

5.      Evaluate the best solution to the problem

            Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems; reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate to he real life situations of students, emphasising ‘Learning by doing’.

2.5.2 The Progressive Curriculum

·         Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the experiences, interests, and abilities of students.

·         Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society.

·         Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.

·         Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.

·         Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender. addition,

·         By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school.

2.6.1 What is Reconstructionism?

            Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the 1930's through the 1960's.  It was largely the brain child of Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favor reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932) who in a speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but must take a position.

           

            Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy.  It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, designed by Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation."  Radical in its conception, critical pedagogy was based on Marxist ideology which advocates equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against capitalism. More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in which people can move through different stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active participants in changing their own status through social action to change bring about social justice.

2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum

• In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.

• The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty, environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc.

• There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.

• The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society. Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum.
• Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may be utopian in nature.

• In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and philosophy), rather than the sciences.